Cervical cancer develops when abnormal cells grow uncontrollably in the cervix, the lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina. It is one of the most common cancers affecting women worldwide, particularly in regions with limited access to screening and HPV vaccination.

Most cervical cancers are squamous cell carcinomas, arising from the cells lining the outer part of the cervix. A smaller proportion are adenocarcinomas, which develop from glandular cells inside the cervical canal. Persistent infection with high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) is the main cause of cervical cancer.

At OncoClinic, we support early detection and accurate diagnosis with clear screening pathways, careful assessment, and personalized care planning tailored to your specific situation and goals.

Signs and symptoms

• Abnormal vaginal bleeding (between periods, after sexual intercourse, or after menopause)
• Unusual vaginal discharge, sometimes watery or blood-tinged
• Pelvic pain or discomfort
• Pain during sexual intercourse
• Longer or heavier menstrual periods
• Other symptoms may include persistent pelvic or lower back pain, leg swelling, difficulty urinating or bowel changes, and fatigue or unintended weight loss

Persistent or unusual gynecologic symptoms should be evaluated by a healthcare professional.

Risk factors

• HPV Infection: Persistent infection with high-risk HPV (especially HPV-16 and HPV-18), the most important risk factor
• Screening: Lack of regular screening, leading to undetected precancerous changes
• Sexual activity: Early onset of sexual activity and multiple sexual partners (increasing HPV exposure)
• Smoking: Smoking, which weakens local immune defenses in the cervix
• Immune system: Weakened immune system, including HIV infection or immunosuppressive therapy
• Hormonal factors: Long-term use of oral contraceptives (slightly increased risk)
• Reproductive history: Multiple full-term pregnancies
• Socioeconomic status: Low socioeconomic status, often related to limited access to screening and care

Screening

Cervical cancer screening is an effective way to prevent cervical cancer by detecting precancerous changes early. Regular screening is recommended for women who have been sexually active to identify high-risk HPV infections and precancerous changes.

Screening should generally begin between ages 25 and 30, depending on local guidelines and test availability, and should continue until age 65, provided recent screening results have been normal.

Preferred screening methods:

• HPV testing every 5 years — the preferred method, as it effectively detects high-risk HPV infection
• Pap test alone every 3 years — used when HPV testing is not available

Women with HIV infection, immunosuppression, or a history of high-grade cervical lesions may need earlier and more frequent screening. Screening should be individualized in these situations.

Diagnosis

Cervical cancer is often diagnosed after an abnormal screening result or when symptoms prompt further evaluation.

Diagnostic evaluation typically includes:

• Pelvic examination: Physical examination of the cervix and pelvic organs to detect abnormalities
• Colposcopy: A detailed examination of the cervix using magnification
• Biopsy: Tissue sampling to confirm the diagnosis and determine histologic type
• Pathology evaluation: Determines tumor type and grade

Once cancer is confirmed, additional tests are performed to assess the extent of the disease.

Staging

After diagnosis, staging determines how far the cancer has spread and guides treatment planning. Staging evaluation may include:

• Pelvic MRI: Preferred imaging to assess local tumor extent
• CT scan or PET/CT: To evaluate lymph nodes and distant spread
• Cystoscopy or proctoscopy: In selected cases, to assess bladder or rectal involvement

Cervical cancer is staged from Stage I to Stage IV:

• Stage I: Cancer confined to the cervix
• Stage II: Cancer extends beyond the cervix but not to the pelvic wall or lower vagina
• Stage III: Cancer involves the pelvic wall, lower vagina, and/or causes kidney obstruction
• Stage IV: Cancer has spread to nearby organs (such as bladder or rectum) or distant sites

Treatment and procedures

At OncoClinic, cervical cancer care is delivered through a multidisciplinary, patient-centered approach. Treatment is individualized based on disease stage, tumor characteristics, and overall health.

Surgery: Surgery is mainly used for early-stage cervical cancer and may involve the removal of the cervix, uterus, and surrounding tissues. When surgery is indicated, procedures are performed in collaboration with our accredited partner hospitals, under the direct supervision and coordination of our medical team, ensuring continuity of care and adherence to established treatment standards.

Chemotherapy: Chemotherapy is commonly used together with radiation (chemoradiation) or as part of treatment for advanced or recurrent disease.

Radiation therapy: Radiation therapy is a key treatment for locally advanced cervical cancer and is often combined with chemotherapy to improve effectiveness.

Targeted therapy and immunotherapy: These treatments may be used in selected patients with recurrent or metastatic cervical cancer, based on specific tumor and biomarker characteristics.

Combined treatment strategies: Many patients benefit from a coordinated combination of surgery, radiation therapy, and systemic treatments.

Palliative and supportive care: Supportive care focuses on symptom control, pain management, emotional support, and quality of life at all stages of the disease.

References

Cervical cancer
World Health Organization (WHO), 2026

Cervical cancer overview
American Cancer Society, 2026

Cervical cancer – patient version
National Cancer Institute (NCI), 2026

NCCN clinical practice guidelines in oncology: cervical cancer
National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN), latest version

FIGO staging of cervical cancer
Bhatla N et al. – International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 2019

Cervical cancer
Cohen PA et al. – The Lancet, 2019